Neurobiology of Stress

The neurobiology of stress refers to the complex network of brain structures, hormones, and neurotransmitters involved in the body's response to stressors, whether physical, emotional, or environmental. Stress is a natural and adaptive response that helps individuals react to challenges or threats, but when stress becomes chronic or overwhelming, it can lead to significant physiological and psychological consequences. At the core of the stress response is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a central stress pathway. When a stressor is perceived, the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which signals the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, the body’s primary stress hormone. Cortisol mobilizes energy reserves, increases glucose availability, and modulates immune function—helpful in short bursts but potentially harmful when levels remain elevated over time. This involves the rapid release of adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine, resulting in increased heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration—physiological changes that prepare the body to respond to perceived danger. Once the threat is removed, the parasympathetic nervous system works to return the body to its baseline state. However, in chronic stress conditions, this balance is disrupted, leading to prolonged activation of stress responses and impairments in recovery.

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